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-\chap PLATO'S IMAGE OF TIME (AN ESSAY IN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIOLOGY) 
-
-\null\vfill
-
-63-5592 
-
-This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 
-
-\hang
-GIOSCIA, Victor Joseph, 1930-- PLATO'S IMAGE OF TIME (AN ESSAY IN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIOLOGY).\nl
-\nl
-Fordham University, Ph.D., 1963\nl
-Philosophy\nl
-Sociology, general \nl
-
-\vfill
-
-\centerline{University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan}
-
-\vfill\break
-
-\null\vfill
-\centerline{ Copyright by Victor Joseph Gioscia 1963}
-\vfill\break
-
-\centerline{PLATO'S IMAGE OF TIME}
-\centerline{(AN ESSAY IN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIOLOGY)}
-
-
-\centerline{BY}\nl
-
-\centerline{VICTOR JOSEPH GIOSCIA}
-\centerline{M.A. FORDHAM UNIVERSITY, 1957}
-
-\centerline{DISSERTATION}
-
-{\parindent=0pt\leftskip=0pt plus1fill\rightskip=0pt plus1fill\parfillskip=0pt
-SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY AT FORDHAM UNIVERSITY\par}
-
-
-\centerline{NEW YORK}
-\centerline{1963}
-
-\Q{But now the sight of day and night, and the months and the revolutions of the years have created number and have given us a conception of time, and the power of inquiring about the nature of the universe, and from this source we have derived philosophy, than which no greater good ever was or will be given by the gods to mortal man.}
-\Qs{Tim\ae us 47}
-
-\sec CHAPTER 1 --- INTRODUCTION 
-
-
-If one knew of an important writer who had written 
-a number of consecutive and cumulative works, but if one 
-chose to read the tenth in the series because he felt 
-that it gave evidence of a stylistic superiority, one 
-could be criticized for exercising a stylistic preference 
-at the expense of his own doctrinal enrichment. 
-
-For example, if it is true that Plato wrote his 
-dialogues over a period of many years, and that in some 
-of the later works he reconsidered his philosophy of time, 
-one could criticise that reader who chose to look for 
-Plato's philosophy of time only in those dialogues to 
-which he is attracted, by reminding the reader that he 
-ignored the possibility of later modifications of doctrine 
-which Plato may have attained. 
-
-In this age of process philosophies, we seldom 
-witness scholarly interest in Plato's views of time and 
-history. And yet Whitehead has remarked that not only the 
-process philosophies, but, in some sense, all european 
-Philosophy consists of a series of footnotes to Plato.\fnote{A.N. Whitehead, \bt{Process and Reality} (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1941), p. 63.}
-
-If it could be shown that there is a Platonic 
-philosophy of time and that this philosophy is as seminal 
-for the process philosophies as Whitehead's remark 
-indicates it to be, it would seem well worth the effort 
-to investigate this topic with some thoroughness. In 
-addition, he who begins to read the scholars who have 
-written in this area will quickly discover that many of 
-them seem to prefer to study those dialogues which have 
-come to be called the "middle" group. 
-
-As the reader will see in the pages to come, there 
-has recently been a quickening of interest on the part of 
-modern writers in the views of Plato on the question of 
-time and its meaning, and these writers have attempted to 
-investigate the relations between Plato's philosophy of 
-time and contemporary process-philosophies. Several writers 
-have addressed themselves to reconsiderations of the 
-meanings of Plato's theory of time and the implications 
-which this theory might have for contemporary investigations. For example, W.H. Walsh discusses the controversy 
-
-
-which arose after the publication of K. Popper's two 
-
-
-2 W.H. Walsh, "Plato and the Philosophy of History: 
-History and Theory in the Republic,” History and Theory 
-(The Hagues Mouton & Co., 1962), II, 1, pp. 1-16. 
-
-
-
-volumes, 9 in which Popper wrote, somewhat angrily, that 
-
-
-Plato's “view of the world" was "fundamentally historical." 
-Although Walsh later agrees with Popper's assertion that 
-Plato was at bottom a "totalitarian"* he disagrees strongly 
-that Plato's view of the world was historical at all, and, 
-in the remainder of his article, examines with great care 
-and patience Books VIII and 1X of the Republic to show 
-that Plato did not really posess a “philosophy of History." 
-While it is not the aim of this study to discuss 
-these two writers, it is instructive to cite them as 
-examples because they contain views which are representative 
-of certain aspects of Platonic scholarship in our generation.> Walsh represents the tendency to view the Republic 
-as the final source of Plato's philosophy of the Polis; 
-Popper represents that view which regards Plato as one 
-of the first "social scientists" whose interest it was to 
-observe and classify those irrevocable patterns in nature 
-which make prediction of future events possible. 
-
-
-R.G. Bury has also addressed himself to the question 
-
-
-3 K.R. Popper, The Open Society and its Enemies 
-(2 vols.; 2d ed. rev.; London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 
-1952). 
-
-4 Waleh, op, cit., p. 6. 
-
-2 See, for example. R.L. Nettleship, Lectures on 
-the Republi Plato (New York: The Macmillan Company, 
-1955), and E. freee Political Thought of Plato and 
-Aristotle (New York: Dover Publications, i 1959). 
-
-
-Both of these authors make slight reference to the 
-Timaeug while discussing Plato's “Political Philosophy.” 
-
-
-
-whether Plato has a philosophy of history, and, aithough 
-
-
-he does not regard the Republic as the final source of 
-Plato's reflections on this topic, and pays rather extended 
-
-
-attention to the Timaeus, he nevertheless concludes that 
-
-
-Plato does not achieve a sufficiently gradualist position 
-to qualify as a genuine philosopher of history.© 
-
-E. MacKinnon! is of the opinion that an adequate 
-conceptualization and subsequent insight into the meaning 
-of the notion of time in contemporary physics must begin 
-with the thoughts which the classical Greeks gave to this 
-
-
-topic. He cites passages from the Timaeus to show that 
-
-
-Plato's thoughts on time can be fruitfully consulted by a 
-modern theorist and that such a consultation facilitates 
-the modern's attempt to understand contemporary physical 
-theory. 
-
-The dee teuporany student of Plato nas been delighted 
-with the extensive commentary which has been flowing from 
-the pen of Gauss” in his six volume Handkommentar, and it 
-might be mentioned that in the final volume Gauss devotes 
-
-
-considerable attention to Plato's Timaeus and the social 
-
-
-6 R.G. bury, “Plato and History,” Classical 
-Quarterly, New Series, 1-2, pp. 86-94, 
-
-
-T Eaward MacKinnon, 8.J., "Time in Contemporary 
-
-
-Physics," International Philosophical Quart Daa ae, 
-(September, 1962), Dp. 429. 
-
-
-8 Hermann Gauss, Philosophischer Handkommentar zu 
-den Dialogen Platos, vol. itt part 2 (Bern: Herbart Lang, 16. 
-
-
-function of Piato's theory of time in the cosmology which 
-this dialogue develops. 
-
-In a simiitar vein, although of slightly less recent 
-vintage, one notices in Bertrand Russell's Mysticism and 
-Logic? an extended discussion of the relation between a 
-conception of time and the sort of insight which he 
-describes as "mystical." There the reader confronts the 
-statement that Plato, like ail “mystical” writers, regarded 
-the reality of time as illusory, and Russe.l: supports his 
-claim by appeal to the Parmenides. He does not distinguish 
-between tne character or Parmenides which Plato has 
-created in his dialogue, and the real Parmenides whose 
-doctrines we must reconstruct from the fragments of his 
-works bequeathed to us through the ages. 
-
-There is the now familiar quotation from Whitehead's 
-Process and Keality to the effect that an analysis of 
-Plato's thought is rar from an antiquarian interest; it 
-reads in full, “The safest general characterization of 
-the Guropean philosophical tradition is that 1t consiste 
-of a series of footnotes to Plato."!9 This statment is of 
-considerable import since it appears in @ major work of a 
-major philosopher of our own era, who is known to have 
-
-
-been deeply influenced by Einstein's notion of time in 
-
-
-a Se SS DST Ec Spe 
-9 Bertrand Russell, Mysticism and Logic (Garden 
-
-
-City, New York: Doubleday & Co., 1917). 
-10 Whitehead, loc, cit. 
-
-
-his Relativity Physics. For this reason, Whitehead's 
-philosophy may be viewed as a process philosophy because 
-of its radical temporalisn. 
-
-Again, in a similar vein, Heisenberg! ! perhaps the 
-most distinguished of living physicists, has recently 
-written that the key to the hoped-for solution to the 
-fundamental enigmas involved in the constitution of 
-
-
-matter, is to be found in Plato's Timaeus, where it is 
-
-
-said that mathematical forms and not fundamental particles 
-of a solid stuff are at the basis of the Universe. 
-
-Iwo groups of writers can be distinguished in the 
-foregoing citations; one group of writers concern themselves with political and sociologicaL questions, and the 
-others are concerned with cosmological questions. It is 
-therefore a matter of importance to note that Plato does 
-not suffer from this division of subject matter; in the 
-
-
-Timaeus, it is precisely these two seemingly disparate 
-
-
-themes which he unites. Thus it is something of a 
-problem for modern writers to account for the separation 
-of cosmology from politics which most writers assume in 
-approaching Plato's written works, although this separation is foreign to Plato himself. 
-
-Therefore, in addition to showing the relevance of 
-
-
-Plato's thought to modern speculation, we must point out 
-
-
-11 Werner Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy (New 
-York: Harper & Brothers, 1955), ch. 4. 
-
-
-that some modern writers have divided Plato against himself, and have viewed his philosophy as if it were divided 
-among the academic specializations which characterize 
-modern universities. Or, to put the matter differently, 
-
-we ought to realize that Plato's perspectives do not 
-mirror our own perspectives, and that Plato's approach 
-
-to certain fundamental questions about the ultimate origins 
-of society and the Universe differ from our own. But it 
-does not suffice to say that Plato's focus differed from 
-our own; one must account for the difference, and explain 
-how it was that Plato was able to consider cosmological 
-and sociological questions as inseparable. 
-
-To account for Plato's undivided focus on what we 
-would consider separate problems, it is necessary to 
-anticipate some of the conclusions which we shall reach in 
-subsequent chapters. Briefly, it can be said at this 
-juncture that Plato included cosmology and sociology within 
-a larger perspective, a perspective in which the origin of 
-the Universe and the origin of society were seen as stages 
-in a temporal process, so that he first presents an account 
-of the origins of the Universe and then, presents an 
-account of the origin of society, at a later time. But it 
-should not pass without comment that Plato's account of 
-the origin of the Universe was set down for the purpose 
-of deepening his account of the origin of society, and 
-that his discussion of the account of the Universe is 
-
-
-preceded by statements to the effect that it is only upon 
-
-
-the broad canvass of the entire Universe that the best 
-account of society's origins can be painted, !2 
-
-the reason for this metaphorical phraseology 18 not 
-arbitrary, and in the remainder of this study it will 
-become evident that one must frequently resort to metaphor 
-to explain Plato's meaning because Plato himself makes use 
-
-
-of metaphor throughout his iimaeus, indeed, throughout 
-
-
-most of his philosophy. This emphasis on metaphor, in fact, 
-becomes one of the central problems for any commentator on 
-
-
-the limaeus and its philosophy. For Plato has fashioned 
-
-
-his philosophy of time in such a way that it is impossible 
-to be faithful to Plato's thought without a heavy emphasis 
-on imagery. As we shall see, Plato's discussion of the 
-reality of time contains not only a number of images but 
-a definition of time whose central term is the word image. 
-Since Plato defines time as an image, it becomes the 
-probiem of the commentator to reveal as clearly as possible 
-the significance of this definition and the reason for his 
-inclusion of image as one of its principal terms. 
-
-In short, it would be impossible to discuss Plato's 
-Timaeus and its doctrine of time without paying considerable 
-attention to Plato's use of the word image, and the meaning 
-
-
-otf this word in its philosophical context. but there is 
-
-
-12 See, ror example. F.M. Cornford, From Heligion 
-to Phitosophy (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1957). 
-
-
-another reason for discussing Plato's time-image, and 
-again, to anticipate briefly what shall be discussed in 
-the concluding portions of this study, we may say at this 
-juncture that Plato has put imagery at the heart or his 
-time-philosophy because it is the function of an image to 
-present complex unities in a simple vision, on which one 
-may, if one wishes, focus the more divisive powers of 
-logical analysis. In short, Plato's use of image invests 
-his doctrine of time with a great unity, which subsequent 
-analysis finds to be a rich source of philosophical insight. 
-There is unanimous agreement among scholars that 
-Plato concerned himself with those inquiries which he felt 
-were important for a philosophy of life in community. It 
-should not, therefore, be surprising to find that a 
-sociologist who is interested in a full and complete 
-history of sociological theory, endeavors to examine Plato's 
-‘philosophy of society. Since, however, Plato does not 
-separate his sociological theory from his cosmological 
-philosophy, the sociologist is faced with the necessity of 
-familiarizing himself with those parts of Plato's philosophy which most contemporary sociologists would exclude 
-from current definitions of the province of sociology. 
-This ought not give rise to the conclusion that the 
-contemporary sociologist has forsaken his calling; rather, 
-4t should be interpreted as the willingness of the sociologist to extend his inquiry into those regions of 
-thought where the theorist he is following has taken hin. 
-
-
-In this sense, it is clear that Plato's sociological 
-thinking must read it in its given context, and to do so, 
-4t 4s necessary to notice that Plato has made this context 
-cosmological. It follows that the sociologist who reads 
-Plato's theories of society without a comprehension of 
-their stated cosmological context is attempting to take 
-Plato's theory of society out of its given context, and 
-that, to do so violates the general canons of scholarship. 
-The most explicit formulation which Plato made of his 
-philosophy of time is found in his Timaeus. In this 
-
-
-dialogue, he reexamines some of the ideas he formulated in 
-the Republic, and, in so doing, makes the context of his 
-examination of society explicitly temporal; that is, he 
-suggests that it is necessary to know about time in order 
-to know about the best form of society, and he examines 
-these two problems together in the Timaeus. 
-
-The most important focus of this study is to set out 
-the meaning of this apparant juxtaposition of problems and 
-to show that it was no arbitrary mingling of themes, but a 
-theoretical synthesis which flows from a central Platonic 
-insight. 
-
-It will be established that the Timaeus is very 
-
-
-probably the last dialogue Plato completed and edited, that 
-it 1s followed only by the incomplete Critias and the 
-unedited Laws. These facts, taken together with the fact 
-that the Timaeus recapitulates some doctrines of the 
-Republic, give the Timaeus a central importance in Plato®s 
-
-
-
-reflections on society. Only much later in history do we 
-find divisions of thought about society into the academic 
-disciplines called Political Philosophy, Sociology, 
-Economics, Anthropology, etc. Such divisions were not made 
-
-
-in Plato's era, Plato wrote the Republic, the Statesman, 
-
-
-the Critias, and the Laws, and in each of these dialogues 
-he asks questions which twentieth century thinkers would 
-regard as crossing over traditional academic boundaries. 
-Therefore, although it might seem altogether strange to the 
-modern reader, it is nonetheless true that Plato put 
-
-
-together the themes of society and astronomy in the Timaeus, 
-
-
-and that he linked them through his investigation of the 
-reality of time. 
-
-It is necessary to clarify the claim that the Timaeus, 
-4s the last completed dialogue of Plato. The claim that the 
-Timaeus is a “late” dialogue means that the doctrine of the 
-Timaeus contains certain generalizations of doctrine which 
-show it to be a more mature work, the result of subsequent 
-reflection on the doctrines of prior works. The words "more 
-
-
-mature" therefore mean that the doctrine of the Timaeus 
-
-
-includes, generalizes, and goes beyond other dialogues 
-which are therefore doctrinally “earlier.” Therefore, it 
-should be evident that the characterization of a dialogue 
-as "late" or “early” or "middle" refers not only to the 
-period of Plato's life during which it was composed but 
-also to the degree to which its doctrine represents 4 
-
-
-‘reflective advance over prior positions and themes. 
-
-
-More specifically, it will be shown that the 
-Timaeus contains a discussion of the themes of eternity, 
-time, and image, and that these three themes are related 
-to each other in such a way as to be inseparable from each 
-other and from the question of the basis of a society. 
-Thus, the statement that the Timaeus precedes the 
-Critias and the Laws and succeeds the Republic means not 
-
-
-only that these dialogues were written before and after 
-each other respectively; it means also that the doctrine of 
-the Timaeus is a "later doctrine” than the Republic, i.e., 
-that is a reflective advance over the doctrine of the 
-Republic. owevens 4b should be pointed out that the 
-precise meaning of this hypothesized advance will have to 
-be spelled out in the following chapters. It is not possible 
-to reach @ precise meaning on this point here and now, 
-because it is necessary to say exactly how and in what 
-way the doctrine of the Timaeus constitutes an advance 
-over prior dialogues, which it is the whole business of 
-this study to describe. 
-
-Briefly, all that can be done here in the Introduction 
-
-
-is to anticipate the conclusion, which is that the Timaeus 
-
-
-refers to doctrines developed in the Republic, Parmenides, 
-Theatetus, Sophist, Statesman, Philebus, and modifies the 
-doctrines developed in these dialogues in a@ new way, 
-referring Sack" to them, and referring "forward," as it 
-
-
-were, to the Critias and Laws. Again, this is not to say 
-
-
-that Plato was perfectly conscious of a precise and 
-
-
-detailed plan to write the Critias and then the Laws, and 
-
-
-that he knew full well in advance what the exact formulations of doctrine were to be in these future dialogues. 
-
-No such definite finality is necessary to follow out the 
-hypothesis of this study. Most Platonic scholars agree 
-
-that Plato planned to write a trilogy, of which the 
-
-Timaeus was the first dialogue, but we cannot even be sure 
-that he fully intended to complete the trilogy. It may well 
-be, as Cornford says, !° that Plato planned only to complete 
-
-
-the Critias, and then changed his mind and wrote the Laws 
-
-
-instead of the Hermocrates. Again, this does not damage 
-
-
-the hypothesis of this study. 
-In short, all that is maintained here is the view 
-
-
-that the 4maeus contains Plato's most mature reflections 
-
-
-on the themes of eternity, image, and time, and that in 
-
-the Timaeys this trilogy of themes receives the most 
-explicit formulation Plato gave it. this late formulation 
-reformulates some of the ideas Plato had formed in the 
-Republic, and therefore, one ought not look to the Republic 
-for the final formulation of Plato's philosophy of eternity, 
-time, or image. Further, the themes of eternity, time, 
-
-
-and image are treated in the Timaeus in an explicitly 
-
-
-13 F.M. Cornford, Plato's Cosmology (London: 
-Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1 » p. 8. 
-
-
-sociological framework, and are said to be part and 
-parcel of the inquiry into the best society and its basis 
-in time. 
-
-It is necessary to clarify the special use of the 
-term "hypothesis" as it will be employed in this study. 
-By hypothesis is meant nothing more than a tentative 
-assertion of a conclusion, such that one states an hypothesis and then musters “arguments” in favor of it. The 
-hypothesis in this study is a tripartite one: it involves 
-the tentative assertion that the Timaeus is a "late" 
-dialogue, that is, it was written during Plato's last years 
-and it contains his most mature reflections on the doctrines 
-which it discusses; it involves the tentative assertion 
-
-
-that the doctrines of the Timaeus constitute a maturation 
-
-
-and are the results of a progressive evolution which can 
-be traced through the group of dialogues which the scholars 
-have agreed to call the “late” group; and it invoives the 
-tentative assertion that the themes of eternity, image, and 
-time, can be focused upon as those themes which Plato 
-devoted his maturing efforts to expand and deepen by 
-repeated reflection upon them. Finally, the tripartite 
-hypothesis involves the tentative assertion that Plato's 
-thoughts on the basis of society gradually shifted from an 
-"eternalist” to a “temporalist"™ orientation; that is, in 
-his early works, Plato reasoned to the conclusion that 
-
-
-society is based on an eternal model, and in his later 
-
-
-
-works he reasoned that society also shares in a temporal . 
-
-
-process, or, to be more exact, in the reality of time 
-itself. 
-
-Thus it is necessary to distinguish the word 
-“hypothesis” from other uses of the term. For example, in 
-the Parmenides Plato discusses eight "hypotheses" and his 
-meaning there seems to be that one may tentatively assert 
-@ proposition, and then, by reasoning logically to the 
-conclusions which flow from it, and by asking whether these 
-conclusions seem acceptable or not, either accept or reject 
-the hypothesis. This is not the meaning of the term hypothesis as it will be employed here, for we do not intend 
-to begin with the assertion that the Timaeus is a late 
-
-
-dialogue in which certain views are put forward. Rather we 
-will attempt to ascertain whether there are acceptable 
-arguments on whose basis it seems reasonable to conclude 
-that the Timaeus is what we hypothesize it to be and 
-whether it says what we say it says. 
-
-Finally, it is necessary to distinguish the term 
-hypothesis from the usage of the so-called physical 
-sciences, wherein “data" are brought forward to "validate, 
-verify, and confirm" the hypothesis. In the sciences, an 
-hypothesis is said to be a “testable” proposition by 
-reason of “operationalizing” its terms; i.e., describing 
-
-
-the operations through which the investigator has gone 
-
-
-
-
-
-in the process of reaching his conciusions. 14 
-
-As used in this study, the term hypothesis means that 
-a conclusion has been tentatively reached and an insight 
-has been developed by the writer as a result of reading 
-the statements and works cited, and that he regards his 
-views as reasonable conclusions because he has interpreted 
-certain passages in a certain way. The term hypothesis is 
-used because the writer does not regard his conclusions as 
-definitive and exhaustive, but as probable and reasonable 
-conclusions. In this, the method of hypothesis and arguments in favor of adopting the hypothesis as a conclusion 
-resemble but are not identical with the methods of the 
-sciences, because it is impossible to measure an interpretation with physical instruments or to reveal by what 
-processes or operations one has reached his conclusions. 
-Nevertheless, it is claimed that, by focusing his attention 
-on the passages discussed, another student of Plato will 
-probably be brought, if not to identical, then to similar 
-conclusions. 
-
-One could, then, assert that it is the hypothesis of 
-this study that the Timaeus is a late dialogue in which 
-
-
-Plato has united several themes from the late dialogues 
-
-
-14 Garl G. Hempel, “Fundamentals of Concept 
-
-
-Formation in Enpirical Science,” International Encyclopaedia 
-of Unified § ce, vols. I and IT; Foundations of the 
-° ence, C. 
-reas, 1 e 
-
-
-vol. II, no. 7 (University o cago 
-
-
-
-into a new unity, and that this new unity of themes places 
-society on a basis different from the one it received in 
-the earlier dialogues. Then the chapters devoted to the 
-several aspects of this hypothesis could be viewed as 
-"data" which conspire to "verify" the hypothesis; i.e., 
-make it seem more reasonable than another view. 
-
-There are, then, three important problems surrounding 
-Plato's philosophy of time. First, to get the philosophy 
-
-
-of time into its Platonic context, it is necessary to 
-
-
-show the chronological relation of the Ltimaeus as a dialogue 
-to the other dialogues. ‘this is an “external argument" 
-which attempts to establish the relative chronology of 
-the dialogues by relatively non-interpretative criteria, 
-i.e., criteria which do not demand an insight into the 
-meaning of Plato's thought. Second, it is necessary to set 
-the philosophy of time in the Timaeus in its philosophical 
-context. This is an internal argument, which traces the 
-development of Plato's philosophy of time through the late 
-dialogues, in which he considered this problem. Third, it 
-is necessary to show how the definition of time emerges 
-gradually from Plato's thought in the late group of 
-dialogues, where the use of an image becomes gradually 
-more appropriate. 
-
-These problems form a cluster about a deeper point, 
-and it 1s this deeper point which deserves the best efforts 
-towards clarification. Since Plato investigates the meaning 
-
-
-of time, eternity, and image together in his effort to 
-
-
-
-
-
-describe the basis of the best form of society, it is 
-necessary to reveal as clearly as possible how the themes 
-of eternity, time and image are related to the basis of 
-society. This constitutes the primary purpose of this study. 
-As we said above, the twentieth century has witnessed 
-an increasing concern for what is called the Philosophy of 
-History, which includes an attempt to understand human 
-behavior in its historical setting. !> Plato is infrequently 
-consulted in this attempt, and when he is, the Republic is 
-most frequently consulted. If it can be shown that Plato 
-
-
-in the Timaeus devotes his most mature reflections to the 
-
-
-meaning of human life in society in its historical setting, 
-then the tendency to regard the Republic as the definitive 
-source of Plato's reflections on man in history may receive 
-a@ small counter-thrust. It may well be that Plato's 
-philosophy of time and society, seen together as they are 
-in the Timaeus, contains the seed of an insight relevant 
-for our times. 
-
-As to the format of this study, certain preliminary 
-remarks are in order. In the second chapter will be found 
-a discussion of those arguments drawn from relatively non-interpretative sources which set the Timaeus in its 
-
-
-15 Hans Meyerhoff, ed., The Philosophy of History 
-in Our Time (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1959), which 
-contains a valuable anthology of the important authors 
-in this field and some of their most representative 
-
-
-views. 
-
-
-
-chronological order. That is, it will be demonstrated that 
-the Timaeus is in fact the last completed work we have 
-from the pen of Plato, since the Critias is unfinished and 
-
-
-the Laws is unedited. The argument in the second chapter 
-is as external as it is possible to be, and relies as 
-little as possible on insight into the meaning of Plato's 
-thought. It is devoted to the scholars' discussions of 
-Greek language and with certain topographic features of 
-the dialogues. The order of the dialogues according to the 
-"ancients" is recounted; stylistic and linguistic criteria 
-are described and the conclusions reached by these methods 
-are stated in support of the hypothesis. Certain details 
-of Plato's life which are known from sources other than 
-Plato's own writings are brought forward as additional 
-
-
-support for the claim that the Timaeus is a late work. 
-
-
-Finally, the same chapter examines the information avail. 
-able to us in Plato's Seventh Letter. The problem of its 
-authenticity is discussed and the relevance of this 
-information is described. 
-
-In the third chapter, the order of the dialogues is 
-taken to be correct, as established by the external 
-criteria, and, assuming this order, the themes of eternity, 
-time, and image are traced through the Republic, Parmenides, 
-
-
-theatetus, Sophist, Statesman, and Philebus. The gradual 
-culmination of these themes in the Timaeus is anticipated 
-
-
-by tracing the development of these themes through the 
-late dialogues. It is therefore not appropriate to call 
-
-
-
-this chapter only an internal or interpretative argument 
-
-
-in support of the hypothesis that the Timaeus is a late 
-
-
-dialogue, for it is concerned with the meaning of the 
-doctrines of the several dialogues as well as the gradual 
-progression of doctrine which becomes visible by reading 
-the dialogues in sequence. 
-
-The fourth and fifth chapters are devoted to a 
-
-
-commentary on those parts of the Timaeus which pertain to 
-
-
-the trilogy of themes of eternity, image, and time, and 
-those aspects of prior dialogues which are pertinent to 
-these themes as the Timaeus treats them. In the final 
-chapter the relation of eternity, time, and image to the 
-Philosophy of Society is discussed in detail; certain 
-references to the Critias and the Laws are made for 
-
-
-additional clarification. 
-
-The final chapter is therefore devoted to the 
-Philosophy of Society and the Philosophy of Time in their 
-concatenation and interrelationship. Some modern studies 
-of Plato's philosophy of history and the conclusions which 
-these studies reach are there discussed, and, where 
-appropriate, differences between their conclusions and 
-the conclusions of this study are presented. Plato's 
-Philosophy of Time and his Philosophy of Society are shown 
-to be interdependent. 
-
-Finally, it should be mentioned that the study will 
-draw on the original Greek sources only insofar as there 
-
-
-are controversial points of grammar, and that English 
-
-
-
-translations are used throughout. 
-
-The writer realizes that this study concerns only a 
-small part of the whole philosophy of Plato, and he humbly 
-admits himself to the company of those more learned than 
-himself who assert nonetheless that one never masters 
-Plato but continues to learn from him at each reading. 
-
-The plan of the thesis, then, is quite simple. The 
-second chapter will show that there is a significant 
-measure of scholarly agreement on the order of the 
-dialogues. The third chapter will trace the doctrines of 
-eternity, image, and time through the late group of dialogues. The fourth and fifth chapters will show the interrelation of these themes in the Timaeus. The concluding 
-chapter will show the relationships between Plato's 
-philosophy of time and his philosophy of society, and 
-
-point out what these relationships signify for a philosophy 
-of history in the Platonic manner. 
-
-The study aspires to show that Plato regarded the 
-eternity of the Forms as the sole basis of perfection 
-when he was in his middle years, and that the Republic 
-may well be taken as representative of the philosophical 
-reflections Plato articulated during these years. But, 
-during the last years of his life, Plato rethought many 
-of the themes of his earlier years, and, as the result of 
-significant experiences and significant reflections on 
-them throughout his later years, finally arrived at a 
-
-
-reformulation of the doctrines of the middle years. 
-
-
-
-
-In his late reformulation, the temporality of the Forms 
-takes on new meaning. 
-
-Whereas the Republic placed society on an eternal 
-
-
-basis, the Timaeus places society on a temporal basis. But 
-
-
-one should not conclude that Plato has simply shiftea from 
-one pole of a dichotomy to its opposite, for such a view 
-would be incorrect. Rather, one should follow Plato 
-through the doctrinal reformulations he accomplishes in 
-his late dialogues to see how he has expanded his philosophical horizons, and in that way, one may arrive, as 
-the writer has, at the view that Plato has ascended new 
-philosophical heights, in which the simple dichotomy 
-between time and eternity is no longer valid or fruitful, 
-and that one best comprehends the basis of society by 
-comprehending the processes which we call Time. One 
-should not infer that Plato has abandoned former insights 
-in his later doctrines. On the contrary, his former 
-insights are included in his new doctrines, not merely as 
-special cases but as points of departure. He retains the 
-
-
-old in the new. 
-
-
-
+% chapter i
+\defpnote{1.1}{A.N. Whitehead, \bt{Process and Reality} 
+(New York: The Macmillan Company, 1941), p. 63.}
+
+{2}{W.H. Walsh, 
+\et{Plato and the Philosophy of History: History and Theory in the Republic,}
+ \jt{History and Theory}
+(The Hague: Mouton \& Co., 1962), II, 1, pp. 1--16.}
+
+{3}{K.R. Popper,
+\bt{The Open Society and its Enemies}
+(2 vols.; 2\tss{nd} ed. rev.; London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952).}
+
+{4}{Walsh, op. cit., p. 6.}
+
+{5}{See, for example. R.L. Nettleship, 
+\bt{Lectures on the Republic of Plato }
+(New York: The Macmillan Company, 
+1955), and E. Barker, 
+\bt{Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle}
+(New York: Dover Publications, Imnc., 1959). 
+Both of these authors make slight reference to the \bt{Timaeus} while discussing Plato's \dq{Political Philosophy.}}
+
+{1.6}{R.G. Bury, 
+\et{Plato and History,}
+\jt{Classical Quarterly,}
+New Series, 1--2, pp. 86--94.}
+
+{1.7}{Edward MacKinnon, S.J., 
+\et{Time in Contemporary Physics,}
+\jt{International Philosophical Quarterly,}
+II, 3, (September, 1962), p. 429.}
+
+{0.8}{Hermann Gauss,
+\bt{Philosophischer Handkommentar zu den Dialogen Platos},
+vol. III part 2 (Bern: Herbart Lang, 1961)}
+
+{0.9}{Bertrand Russell, 
+\bt{Mysticism and Logic}
+(Garden City, New York: Doubleday \& Co., 1917). }
+
+{0.10}{Whitehead, loc, cit.}
+
+{0.11}{Werner Heisenberg,
+\bt{Physics and Philosophy}
+(New York: Harper \& Brothers, 1955), ch. 4.}
+
+{0.12}{See, for example. F.M. Cornford, 
+\bt{From Religion to Philosophy}
+(New York: Harper \& Brothers, 1957).}
+
+{0.13}{F.M. Cornford, 
+\bt{Plato's Cosmology},
+(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1937), p. 8.}
+
+{0.14}{Carl G. Hempel, 
+\et{Fundamentals of Concept Formation in Empirical Science,}
+\bt{International Encyclopaedia of Unified Science},
+vols. I and IT; 
+\ul{Foundations of the Unity of Science}
+vol. II, no. 7 (University of Chicago Press, 1952)}
+
+{0.15}{Hans Meyerhoff, ed., 
+\bt{The Philosophy of History in Our Time}
+(New York: Doubleday \& Co., 1959), 
+which contains a valuable anthology of the important authors in this field and some of their most representative views.}
+
+% chapter ii
 CHAPTER IT 
 THE ORDER OF THE DIALOGUES 
 
@@ -922,7 +114,7 @@ order of composition there is a valid presumption that
 it also representa some sort of development in doctrine. 
 If, then, one shows in addition that the doctrines 
 developed follow an ascending order of reflection, the 
-point is made. ‘thus, the arguments are not independent 
+point is made. 'thus, the arguments are not independent 
 of each other. 
 
 If it can be shown that there is a development of 
@@ -948,7 +140,7 @@ of the Timaeus is a culmination, and each scholar could
 do this without reference to non-interpretative criteria. 
 
 
-‘But, in this way, so many different postulates would ensue 
+'But, in this way, so many different postulates would ensue 
 
 
 
@@ -970,7 +162,7 @@ dialogues which refer to each other, as, for example, in
 
 
 the Timaeus, which refers to the Republic almost explicitly 
-by repeating ‘ciods doctrines of the HKepublic which are 
+by repeating 'ciods doctrines of the HKepublic which are 
 found nowhere else in those of Plato's written works which 
 have come down to us. 
 
@@ -1094,7 +286,7 @@ the treatment Plato received at the academy of the Medicis,
 where Marsilius Ficinus taught from the text of the 
 
 
-Timaeug.” 
+Timaeug." 
 
 
 Jaeger notes a change in the eighteenth century, 
@@ -1103,7 +295,7 @@ was nonetheless very much alive. However, theretofore,
 Plato had been regarded as a mystic and as a theologian 
 whose doctrine was as systematic and systematized as the 
 Aristotelianism of the Schoolmen. Plato was regarded only 
-as the author of the theory of ideas.” 
+as the author of the theory of ideas." 
 
 According to Jaeger, it was Schleierzacher's 
 contention that the form which a philosophy took was a 
@@ -1111,7 +303,7 @@ creative expression of the philosopher's individuality,
 and it was Plato's genius, he thought, to dramatize, and to 
 
 
-use philosophy as a “continuous philosophical discussion 
+use philosophy as a "continuous philosophical discussion 
 
 
 aimed at discovering the truth. "> 
@@ -1144,7 +336,7 @@ to regard the problems
 of authenticating not only the authorship but the chronology of Plato's dialogues as of paramount importance, and 
 Jaeger tells us that Hermann came to regard the dialogues 
 as "stages in the gradual development of Plato's philosophy."? Thus Hermann brought "into the center of interest 
-@& problem which had hitherto been little considered, and 
+@\& problem which had hitherto been little considered, and 
 gave it much greater importance. This was the problem of 
 the dates at which the several dialogues had been written, "8 
 Since various authors developed differing opinions on the 
@@ -1244,7 +436,7 @@ But these are not final criteria. Gomperz asks "...is not
 
 
 
-an author's ‘advance,’ his progress towards perfection 
+an author's 'advance,’ his progress towards perfection 
 the surest criterion for the chronological arrangement of 
 his works"? He answers his own question in the affirmative, 
 but reminds us that this road leads to diverse and varied 
@@ -1394,7 +586,7 @@ so that his students could gradually master his philosophical
 systen. 
 
 Campbell says that Schleiermacher's conception of a 
-“complete system gradually revealed" was a stirring one 
+"complete system gradually revealed" was a stirring one 
 
 
 which caused a renaissance of Platonic scholarship. Later, 
@@ -1439,7 +631,7 @@ agreement of the Ancients with his own view, Campbell
 
 
 
-‘concluded that the Laws is probably the last of Plato's 
+'concluded that the Laws is probably the last of Plato's 
 
 
 works. Then, Campbell reasoned that both the Timaeus and 
@@ -1533,7 +725,7 @@ every dialogue" is undertaken. Thus, Campbell's argument
 should read as follows; if the Laws is agreed to be last, 
 then the remainder follows on stylistic grounds. And it 
 should be tallied against Jaeger that the placement of the 
-Laws as last does not rest on "purely mechanical” criteria. 
+Laws as last does not rest on "purely mechanical" criteria. 
 This conclusion bears directly on the question of 
 
 
@@ -1558,10 +750,10 @@ Which the Seventh Letter makes available was taken over
 
 
 = 40 
-by the stylists,-” 25 and added to their attempts to : 
+by the stylists,-" 25 and added to their attempts to : 
 establish the order of the avavoedee: Again, this shows 
 that the stylistic criteria cannot be viewed as "purely 
-machanical.” On the one hand this limite the extent to 
+machanical." On the one hand this limite the extent to 
 which stylistic criteria may be said to be non-interpretative; on the other hand, since interpretative sources 
 enter into stylistic researches, it seems to add to the 
 reliability of stylistic criteria in establishing the 
@@ -1615,7 +807,7 @@ Commentary on the Timaeus, -° there is a rather extensive
 description of the stylistic and stylometric criteria and 
 @ rather extensive reliance on both of them, albeit 
 accompanied by a critique. Later, in Plato, the Man and 
-his Work, “2 there is a recapitulation of the stylistic 
+his Work, "2 there is a recapitulation of the stylistic 
 criteria and a somewhat limited reliance upon them. One 
 can only conclude that Taylor did not deem it worthwhile 
 to inform the readers of the Britannica on the intricasies 
@@ -1649,7 +841,7 @@ ed.;3 Aa print.; New York: Meridian Books, Inc., 1959),
 4, periodic versus poetic style-0 
 He says, in addition, that the last dialogue which bears 
 the marks of Plato's earlier style must be the Theatetus, 
-and that he shares this view with Ritter”! and 
+and that he shares this view with Ritter"! and 
 Lutoslawek1.>* 
 
 A.E. Taylor's recapitulation of the stylistic 
@@ -1675,7 +867,7 @@ centrally in that endeavor, whereas the later dialogues do
 
 
 Constantin Ritter, The Essence of Plato's 
-EnLiceophy, trans. Adam Alles (London: George Allen & 
+EnLiceophy, trans. Adam Alles (London: George Allen \& 
 Unwin, Ltd., 1933). 
 
 
@@ -1684,7 +876,7 @@ Logig (New York: Longmans, rooey.
 
 
 33 John Burnet, Greek Philosophy (London: Macmillan 
-& Co., Ltd., 1914), Part I, p. 212. 
+\& Co., Ltd., 1914), Part I, p. 212. 
 
 
 
@@ -1744,20 +936,20 @@ doctrine rather than for reasons of style.
 
 Ritter says that he learned most "from the English," 
 meaning Burnet, Taylor, and Cornford, and that his own 
-researches brought him into “remarkably close agreement... 
+researches brought him into "remarkably close agreement... 
 with respect to their chronological determinations."-/ 
 Briefly, his conclusions are theses there are six major 
 groupings of dialogues, and the last group, composed of 
 the Sophist, Statesman, Timaeus, Critias, Philebus, and 
 
 
-Laws, must be late because a "careful study of the differences in language and expression" creates an “indubitable 
+Laws, must be late because a "careful study of the differences in language and expression" creates an "indubitable 
 means of determining their genuineness as well as the 
 approximate date of their appearance." >° In addition, he 
 says that there are changes in style and writing which 
 are less precise but no less observable by the trained 
 observer, and that perhaps the strongest of these 
-considerations is the transition from the “poetic” style 
+considerations is the transition from the "poetic" style 
 in the early works to the "didactic" style of the later 
 
 
@@ -1776,7 +968,7 @@ chronology of the works of Goethe, 40
 
 Perhaps a summary of the stylistic controversy is 
 
-in order at this point. “1 Briefly, it began with the 
+in order at this point. "1 Briefly, it began with the 
 efforts of Schleiermacher to reveal what he felt was the 
 pedagogical gradualiem of Plato's dialogues. But Hermann 
 felt that the gradual development in the dialogues revealed 
@@ -1932,7 +1124,7 @@ was of the family of Solon. 42
 a sister, Potone, whose son, Speusippus was therefore 
 
 
-42 alk. Taylor, “Plato,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 
+42 alk. Taylor, "Plato," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 
 pp. 48-64. 
 
 
@@ -1945,7 +1137,7 @@ Strategus of Tarentum) was extremely fortunate since
 Archytas later rescued Plato from slavery, into which he 
 had been sold by Dionysius 11.44 the incident of Plato's 
 slavery was also recorded by Philodemus in his Index 
-Academicorum. “5 However, without the Seventh Letter it is 
+Academicorum. "5 However, without the Seventh Letter it is 
 not possible to set a precise date for this event. Cicero 
 only tells us that Plato was in Sicily and that he was 
 ransomed by Archytas from the slavery into which he had 
@@ -1992,7 +1184,7 @@ for a few years. 49
 
 Plato also travelled to Egypt, Crete, Cyrene, and 
 Italy and Sicily. The Sicilian travels were "of great 
-significance” for Plato's philosophy. In addition to 
+significance" for Plato's philosophy. In addition to 
 Archytas of Tarentum he met other Pythagoreans in Syracuse. 
 It was during these travels that he also met Dion and 
 Dionysius I. Plato was at this time fourty years old; Dion 
@@ -2110,7 +1302,7 @@ give several hints, through the Parmenides, Theatetus, and
 
 
 in the whole group of late dialogues, of the extent to 
-which the doctrines of these dialogues are “beyond" 
+which the doctrines of these dialogues are "beyond" 
 Socrates, that is, ask the sort of questions which Socrates 
 probably would not have asked. 
 
@@ -2238,7 +1430,7 @@ any unprejudiced reader it (the Seventh Letter) cannot
 
 fail to produce the impression of the natural outspokenness 
 of a narrative of personal experience. "65 Cicero himself 
-says, “praeclara epistula Platonis ad Dionis propinquos..."66 
+says, "praeclara epistula Platonis ad Dionis propinquos..."66 
 To these, Harward adds his own views since Plato regarded 
 Kallipos as a "fiend incarnate," and since it was Kallipos 
 who had Dion murdered, and since Kallipos wrote to Plato 
@@ -2322,7 +1514,7 @@ succession of tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy (326 d).
 
 However, while there, he instructs the young Dion 
 who is extraordinarily adept at this sort of learning, and 
-Dion resolves to “live for the future” which of course 
+Dion resolves to "live for the future" which of course 
 makes him terribly unpopular at the court (327 b,c) 
 However it is his hope that Dionysius will learn too, and 
 in this way peace and happiness will be introduced (327 d). 
@@ -2398,7 +1590,7 @@ philosophical digression into the nature of the process
 wherein philosophy is "imparted" so that the student will 
 
 
-_gsee a “marvellous road" open before him (340 b,c). Here 
+_gsee a "marvellous road" open before him (340 b,c). Here 
 
 
 
@@ -2472,7 +1664,7 @@ speak, philosophy happens.
 
 
 
-‘soul, and with all that is done or suffered (342 e). : 
+'soul, and with all that is done or suffered (342 e). : 
 
 Plato distrusts the fixity and unchangeable character 
 of language as he hesitates to put down in words which 
@@ -2488,7 +1680,7 @@ taken, naught will avail the ambitious, such as Dionysius.
 In addition, if there is no "natural inclination," even 
 these steps will lead nowhere (344 a). 
 
-What is needed is a “sudden flash" which will arrive 
+What is needed is a "sudden flash" which will arrive 
 only occasionally and then only after long preperation (344b). 
 Therefore, Plato warns his audience, do not expect to plumb 
 the deepest meanings of philosophy too rapidly. And, even 
@@ -2889,7 +2081,7 @@ on the Form of Justice, it will be better to adopt a
 "shortsighted" method, namely, seeing Justice where it is 
 writ large, in the state (369 a). This will bring about an 
 unfortunate mutilation of pure vision, but it is inescapable. Moreover, it is a better method than the one adopted 
-by such “story tellers" as Hesiod and Homer who rather tell 
+by such "story tellers" as Hesiod and Homer who rather tell 
 lies than avoid distortion (377 e). These authors do not 
 realize that "children" do not know the difference between 
 allegory and fact. It were better that the truth be not 
@@ -2947,10 +2139,10 @@ they are strong, and if their souls are in harmony (410 e),
 they will rule well, despite the limitations which mere 
 images of Justice impose on their thought. 
 
-This limitation of images is termed the “royal lie" 
-and the “audacious fiction" (414 b). It is recognized that 
+This limitation of images is termed the "royal lie" 
+and the "audacious fiction" (414 b). It is recognized that 
 the sights of youth are like dreams, and that their 
-education is an acquaintance with “appearance,” but youth 
+education is an acquaintance with "appearance," but youth 
 ie in a process of formation in the womb of the earth. 
 Perhaps it might not be possible to so educate the guardians in the first generation, but in the next, their sons 
 will probably adopt this view (415 b). Here Plato anticipates the difficulty that a new set of laws may not be 
@@ -3016,9 +2208,9 @@ Socrates relates the need for harmony in the soul; the
 images of this harmony in the particular instances of 
 music and gymnastics are not directly his concern. 
 
-‘This is true because it behooves a man, and a state, 
+'This is true because it behooves a man, and a state, 
 to be a unity, whereas a skill in a large number of 
-particulars strains unity. ‘thus, each class in the state 
+particulars strains unity. 'thus, each class in the state 
 has one and only one function, just as each man in the 
 state will have one and only one occupation. Thus for the 
 shoemaker to fight will be unjust, just as the fighter 
@@ -3029,7 +2221,7 @@ residues is working very well. He reminds us that we are
 seeking a knowledge of Justice and that we are trying to 
 achieve it by seeing Justice writ large in the state, but 
 the discussion seems to be bogging down in particulars. 
-However, he hopes to "strike a spark” and in that way 
+However, he hopes to "strike a spark" and in that way 
 release a vision of his subject (434 e). He says: 
 
 I must confess that the method we are employing 
@@ -3054,18 +2246,18 @@ Toes
 
 
 perfect vision. However, the method of employing images 
-aoes reveal a “shadow” of Justice, and therefore, it is 
+aoes reveal a "shadow" of Justice, and therefore, it is 
 useful (443 c). So, on this basis he traces out the 
 division of labor in a society, showing that each man who 
 fulfills his appointed task is just only insofar as he does 
 not encroach upon the appointed task of another. To do what 
 another ought to do is a double injustice, both to oneself 
-and to the other. The solidarity of the “imaginary commonwealth" (456 d) rests on this Justice, and, in the same way, 
+and to the other. The solidarity of the "imaginary commonwealth" (456 d) rests on this Justice, and, in the same way, 
 the soul of the man who tries to cross his line of responsibility will be unjust. The relation of these divided 
 responsibilities is injustice. We must assume this to be 
 so, for we are reminded that the allegorical investigation 
 of the Form of Justice is like dreamers feasting on a 
-dream, and that the state here investigated is "“imaginary (458 a)." 
+dream, and that the state here investigated is ""imaginary (458 a)." 
 
 Does unity, achieved by the harmony of each individual (soul or class) performing his one task, really work. 
 "The inquiry has yet to be made whether such a community 
@@ -3303,7 +2495,7 @@ like the truth, but is not the truth (533 c).
 The seeds of a new insight are here, but it would 
 be stretching the point to say that we are now fully 
 4nstructed in it. It becomes true to say that for every 
-level of truth, the level just beneath it "images” it. 
+level of truth, the level just beneath it "images" it. 
 For this reason, there are two kinds of image in the 
 divided line: from the higher vantage point of perception, 
 mere sensation is only a shadow, the lowliest kind of image. 
@@ -3370,7 +2562,7 @@ The soul is pictured as consisting of one part polycephalous beast, one part lio
 as the state consists of three classes, one of knowledge, 
 one of ambition, and one of money (580 da). Having discovered this as a result of the inquiry into the state as the 
 image of the justice of the soul, Socrates says now that 
-the ideal city is a pattern laid up in heaven, and “he who 
+the ideal city is a pattern laid up in heaven, and "he who 
 desires may behold this, and beholding, govern himself 
 accordingly. But whether there really is or ever will be 
 such a one is of no importance to him, for he will act 
@@ -3411,7 +2603,7 @@ an attempt on Plato's part to plumb not only the depths
 of things but to discern their origins. The Myth of 
 goes beyond the Pythagorean myth of political philosophy 
 in that it is meant to be a brief cosmogony, not just the 
-origin of this or that political form. ‘'o those who search 
+origin of this or that political form. ''o those who search 
 the Republic for a literal political philosophy and its 
 correlations with the soul, it might seem strange that 
 the Republic should end on a note of myth. However, to 
@@ -3442,7 +2634,7 @@ allowed to see what happens to the souls who perish. Some
 are doomed to wander beneath the earth for ten times the 
 normal lifespan (reckoned as ten times one hundred) and 
 others are allowed to spend their time in a realm of 
-"“4nconceivable Beauty." Thereafter, the souls are allowed 
+""4nconceivable Beauty." Thereafter, the souls are allowed 
 to choose from a wide assortment of lives those they think 
 they would enjoy in their next mortal period on earth. 
 
@@ -3487,7 +2679,7 @@ realm of Forms, the visible world of time, and the strange
 distance between them which makes the truth of the eternal 
 realm almost impossibly unintelligible to the visible life. 
 Here in the Myth of Er the souls who have lived for a 
-thousand years in the realm of “inconceivable Beauty" are 
+thousand years in the realm of "inconceivable Beauty" are 
 made to forget this experience by imbibing the waters of 
 
 
@@ -3769,7 +2961,7 @@ the relation of one realm to the other seems impossible, and
 with that impossibility of separation, partially bridged by 
 the reluctant admission of images, the basis of true 
 knowledge (and Justice, Good, Beauty, etc.) disappears. 
-One falls thereafter into a “pit of nonsense." The further 
+One falls thereafter into a "pit of nonsense." The further 
 consequence is that anyone who might have knowledge of the 
 Forms would be unable to have knowledge of us, since we are 
 in a different realm (134 e). Separated realms leads to 
@@ -3829,7 +3021,7 @@ time is set forth as follows:
 The One cannot be older, or younger, or the same age 
 as itself, because that would imply Likeness, which it was 
 shown not to have (140 a). Therefore it cannot exist in 
-time at all (141 a). “And if the One 1s without participation in time, it never has become, or was becoming, or was 
+time at all (141 a). "And if the One 1s without participation in time, it never has become, or was becoming, or was 
 at any former time, or has now become or is becoming, or is 
 or will become, or will have become or will be hereafter." 
 
@@ -3911,7 +3103,7 @@ Therefore, since the one partakes of time, and
 partakes of becoming older and becoming younger than itself 
 and the Others, and neither is nor becomes older or younger 
 than the Others, the One is aid wee and will be, and was 
-becoming, 1s becoming, and will be becoming. “And, if we 
+becoming, 1s becoming, and will be becoming. "And, if we 
 are right in all this, then there is an opinion and science 
 and perception of the One" (155 da). 
 
@@ -3972,7 +3164,7 @@ these instants cannot be in time, and might therefore be
 called not-time. Plato does not use this term. He calls it 
 
 
-_& "queer instant" and says that the divided One of 
+_\& "queer instant" and says that the divided One of 
 
 
 
@@ -4079,7 +3271,7 @@ However, for the purposes of this study, an important,
 conclusion has been stated. We saw in hypothesis IIA, 
 that it is not possible to regard time as a series of 
 instants strung out along an imaginary line, and that the 
-instant is, in some way, not-time, a “queer instant." 
+instant is, in some way, not-time, a "queer instant." 
 
 As we shall see, in one of the next dialogues, the 
 Sophist, the generalization of this problem of not-time is 
@@ -4118,8 +3310,8 @@ This dialogue sets itself the problem of examining
 
 knowledge, and asks itself to answer such questions as 
 
-"do we know," “how do we know," and "are there kinds of 
-knowledge.” Where the Parmeyides focused on the consequences of hypothesizing that the realm of Forms is completely 
+"do we know," "how do we know," and "are there kinds of 
+knowledge." Where the Parmeyides focused on the consequences of hypothesizing that the realm of Forms is completely 
 
 
 separated from the realm of things, the Theatetus inquires 
@@ -4177,17 +3369,17 @@ long as it remains equal with itself" (155 a). Again, we
 find "...a thing to which nothing is added and from which 
 nothing is taken away is neither diminished nor increased, 
 but always remains the same in amount" (155 a). And 
-“,.emust we not say...that a thing which was not at an 
+",.emust we not say...that a thing which was not at an 
 earlier instant cannot be at a later instant without 
 becoming, and being in process of becoming" (155 b)? On 
 the basis of these axioms, things both change and do not 
-change and are perceived and are not perceived. “The 
+change and are perceived and are not perceived. "The 
 conclusion from all this, is, as we said at the outset, 
 that nothing is one thing by itself but is always in 
 process of becoming for someone, and being is to be ruled 
 out altogether" (157 b). All is flux, each is flux. 
 Socrates wants to make sure that the point has been firmly 
-made so he asks: “Once more, then, tell me whether you 
+made so he asks: "Once more, then, tell me whether you 
 like this notion that nothing is but is always becoming 
 good, or beautiful, or any of the other things we mentioned" (157 a). 
 
@@ -4211,7 +3403,7 @@ eternal world? In the Theatetus, the question becomes: do
 the images which perception gives us make possible a knowledge of the eternal? . 
 
 Socrates reminds us that the "men of flux" constitute 
-only one group, which is opposed by another group, consisting of Parmenides and Melissus, who hold that “all things 
+only one group, which is opposed by another group, consisting of Parmenides and Melissus, who hold that "all things 
 are a unity which stays still by itself, having no room to 
 move in. How are we to deal with all these combatants? For, 
 little by little, our advance has brought us, without our 
@@ -4296,7 +3488,7 @@ because they are "low," and knowledge is not better merely
 because it is "high": we are now asked to see that false 
 judgments can arise out of faulty matching of remembered 
 images, present images, and reflections on images with 
-“an eye to the future." This is a significant advance 
+"an eye to the future." This is a significant advance 
 over the Republic. 
 
 The discussion of knowledge is further complicated 
@@ -4341,7 +3533,7 @@ knowledge, for, in a sense, knowing is relearning what we
 
 
 
-‘knew before (198 e). Yet, if we ask whether some of these 
+'knew before (198 e). Yet, if we ask whether some of these 
 recollections might not also be false, we see that the 
 criterion of true knowledge remains to be found (200 b). 
 
@@ -4403,11 +3595,11 @@ to say that knowledge is opinion with an account of
 difference, unless we already know the common on the basis 
 of which we distinguish the difference. (Although this is 
 what we do, it 1s not a definition of knowledge since it 
-includes “knowing the common" in its "definition"). 
+includes "knowing the common" in its "definition"). 
 
 | The dialogue ends a few lines later with Socrates 
 saying that all the definitions of knowledge so far 
-adduced are mere “wind-eggs" (210 b). Theatetus is told 
+adduced are mere "wind-eggs" (210 b). Theatetus is told 
 that the mid-wife's art is a heavenly gift which Socrates 
 uses on those in whom beauty resides, and that as a result 
 of this gymnastic they have engaged in, Theatetus will 
@@ -4420,8 +3612,8 @@ define what knowledge is. Actually, we have said several
 
 
 
-‘things about what it is not, and therefore Theatetus has 
-made progress along the “long way" which is required for 
+'things about what it is not, and therefore Theatetus has 
+made progress along the "long way" which is required for 
 this sort of knowledge. That is why the last words of the 
 dialogue are "But tomorrow morning, Theatetus, let us 
 meet again" (210 d). 
@@ -4472,7 +3664,7 @@ that the steps and hypotheses of the Theatetus are no
 
 
 longer regarded as inferior but as necessary preliminaries 
-in the “long way” which the mind must take to true knowledge. 
+in the "long way" which the mind must take to true knowledge. 
 
 Somehow, we have found, not what knowledge is, but 
 what complete knowledge is not. This insight, namely, that 
@@ -4601,8 +3793,8 @@ image is begun.
 
 
 Surely, the Stranger asserts, we cannot just say 
-that what ia, is not. Yet we say “notebeing" as if it were 
-a singular; we say "not-beings” in the plural. We agree 
+that what ia, is not. Yet we say "notebeing" as if it were 
+a singular; we say "not-beings" in the plural. We agree 
 that not=being is unutterable and inconceivable, and yet 
 we speak the words; in short, in the act of saying we 
 cannot say it, we are saying it (238 c). This is the dark 
@@ -4747,7 +3939,7 @@ communicates with them both. But Motion and Rest communicate
 with Same and Other, and therefore, Motion is both Same 
 and Other than being. In other words, Motion is both 
 being and notebeing. And Rest is both being and not-being. 
-And Same is both being and notebeing. “Every class, than, 
+And Same is both being and notebeing. "Every class, than, 
 has plurality of being and infinity of notebeing" (256 e). 
 And 
 
@@ -4860,7 +4052,7 @@ through a notion of notebeing, so we have advanced from a
 faulty notion of the realm of the Forms through notions 
 of what the Forms are not. Of time, we are told little in 
 an explicit way. But one should notice that the Parmenidean 
-“queer instant," what we have called "not-time" has been 
+"queer instant," what we have called "not-time" has been 
 generalized, for the Sophist shows that not-being is to 
 being what not-time is to time. 
 
@@ -4899,7 +4091,7 @@ living things, which live on land, who are hornless, who
 do not interbreed with other classes of animals, and who 
 are two-footed. But the Stranger is not satisfied (267a,b,c). 
 For, unlike the shepherd, the Statesman's right to rule is 
-disputed by the herd. A new beginning must be made. ‘the 
+disputed by the herd. A new beginning must be made. 'the 
 Stranger announces that he will approach the subject by 
 employing a myth. But the Stranger says that his tale is 
 not to be a retelling of the familiar myth of Kronos, but 
@@ -4911,7 +4103,7 @@ Many, which he presents and criticises, respectively, in
 the Parmenides and the Sophist. We shall see that even the 
 myth of Kronos shall be transcended in the Timaeus. 
 
-‘the Stranger tells us that the universe was once 
+'the Stranger tells us that the universe was once 
 helped in its rotation by the god who framed it in the 
 beginning, but that it completed its circle of rotation 
 and then set itself in rotation in the opposite direction. 
@@ -4991,10 +4183,10 @@ in the universe, all things have to change, and, in
 
 
 on all creatures (274 8). Since we do not have this 
-guardianship of the god to follow, but, “imitating the 
+guardianship of the god to follow, but, "imitating the 
 universe and following it through all time, we live and 
 grow at one time in this way and at another time in 
-that” (274 e). As we shall see, the Timaeus advances beyond 
+that" (274 e). As we shall see, the Timaeus advances beyond 
 these doctrines, especially beyond this particular doctrine 
 of necessity. 
 
@@ -5109,7 +4301,7 @@ when we discussed the Sophist. We felt constrained there
 to admit that what is not-x nevertheless exists..." (284 b) 
 So there must be two standards of measure, one having to do 
 with measures relative to each other, and the second those 
-which “comprise arts concerned with due measure, due 
+which "comprise arts concerned with due measure, due 
 occasion, due time, due performance, and all such standards 
 as have removed their abode from the extremes and are now 
 settled about the mean" (284 e). This seems to refer to 
@@ -5247,7 +4439,7 @@ Ls
 
 
 
-‘and ita results are that the Statesman must have a real 
+'and ita results are that the Statesman must have a real 
 knowledge of the rotation of the universe in order to 
 ascertain the right time for the right kind of image of 
 the ruler. There are certain necessities of cosmic motion 
@@ -5305,12 +4497,12 @@ light of Plato's later reflections. hus, 1t is agreed
 that unity and diversity of pleasures is "the same old 
 argument" (13 c). Somehow, the unity and diversity of 
 pleasure must be understood, not in the old way, but in a 
-new way. ‘he key to the new way is the principle of 
+new way. 'he key to the new way is the principle of 
 Difference. 
 
 It is said that this principle of Difference is a 
 marvel of nature because it asks us to affirm that "one 
-would be many or many one” (13 e). No one any longer argues 
+would be many or many one" (13 e). No one any longer argues 
 that it 1s marvelous to assert that Socrates is many and 
 one because he has many limbs but is only one Socrates: 
 
@@ -5326,7 +4518,7 @@ is
 
 Here the initial impression of anachronism fades 
 completely, for the passage clearly asserts that it is 
-childish to continue to play on the words “one” and "many" 
+childish to continue to play on the words "one" and "many" 
 
 
 now that the Parmenides and the Sophist and the Statesman 
@@ -5406,7 +4598,7 @@ Therefore, we must not divide too quickly between the One
 and the Many, or run too quickly from the Many to the One. 
 The endless number of the Many is a kind of infinity, that 
 is, a lack of determined specificity, or, in another sense, 
-& vague and indefinite formlessness. 
+\& vague and indefinite formlessness. 
 
 The infinite must not be allowed to approach the 
 
@@ -5495,7 +4687,7 @@ not even have full pleasure if he did not also have mind
 and aenery and knowledge, because, without them, he would 
 not know whether he was experiencing pleasure. Similarly 
 if he had no memory he would not remember pleasure, which 
-4s also pleasant, nor, without “true opinion" would he be 
+4s also pleasant, nor, without "true opinion" would he be 
 able to perceive present pleasures. In the same way, had 
 he no knowledge, he would be unable to calculate future 
 pleasures (21 b). Similarly, a life of mind without 
@@ -5513,7 +4705,7 @@ will be discussed later.
 
 
 When we say something is hotter or colder, we make : 
-& comparison, and such comparisons are always relative, 
+\& comparison, and such comparisons are always relative, 
 admitting of degrees, and this is an endless business 
 because such measures suggest no way to establish a stable 
 measure. Thus, the class of all such comparatives includes 
@@ -5649,7 +4841,7 @@ the whole by using the middle voice of his native grammar.
 However, he assures us that he has not forgotten his own 
 former dialogues, when he says "...for any class to be 
 alone and in perfect solitude is not good nor altogether 
-possible” (63 b). 
+possible" (63 b). 
 
 The end of the dialogue, interpreted in the light 
 of the gradual growth of Plato's thought through the late 
@@ -5684,7 +4876,7 @@ example, the application of the method of division to the
 universe, which was only briefly and partially done in this 
 dialogue. 
 
-This much, however is certain. ‘he Philebus begins 
+This much, however is certain. 'he Philebus begins 
 with the extension of the method of division to the realm 
 of pleasure and knowledge of pleasure. The purist position 
 that either pleasure or mind must be affirmed as the best 
@@ -5696,7 +4888,7 @@ it is agreed, no longer captures philosophic interest.
 
 
 
-‘The isolated eternality of the forms, modified by the 
+'The isolated eternality of the forms, modified by the 
 Sophist and the Statesman, is further modified by the 
 assertion that pleasures or any Form or class cannot be 
 both good and alone. | 
@@ -5737,7 +4929,7 @@ subjected to the criticism of the Parmenides. There we are |
 told that the naive view of the Forms as separated from 
 what appears to us leads to logically untenable positions, 
 from a series of unreal instants to hypostasizing none 
-existence. A hint of the doctrine of notetime emerges. ‘the 
+existence. A hint of the doctrine of notetime emerges. 'the 
 
 
 Theatetus informs us that we must examine the reality of 
@@ -5848,7 +5040,7 @@ tions of the dialogue reveal. The introductory remarks
 
 
 
-“found in the Timaeus set the foundations, not only for 
+"found in the Timaeus set the foundations, not only for 
 Plato's later philosophy of time but also for the function-~ 
 al significance this philosophy has in relation to Plato's 
 view of the best possible society. 
@@ -5891,10 +5083,10 @@ from this cast alone that questions about the morality of
 ancient Athenian politics will be discussed. 
 
 Socrates opens the dialogue. His discussion of 
-"yesterday" ia a "recapitulation"” of some of the doctrines 
+"yesterday" ia a "recapitulation"" of some of the doctrines 
 of the Republic, (books II-VI) namely, the description of 
 the farmers, craftsmen, and guardians who make up the 
-"best form of society” (17c). The occupational specialization which alloted one and only one role to each individual 
+"best form of society" (17c). The occupational specialization which alloted one and only one role to each individual 
 citizen because he was best fitted for one and only one 
 role, is restated as a reminder of "yesterday's conversation." The statement is made that this brief recapitulation 
 leaves nothing out and is an exact description of the 
@@ -5916,7 +5108,7 @@ Dialogen Platos, p. rey
 
 
 
-‘who do not mix the functions of the others into their own 
+'who do not mix the functions of the others into their own 
 allotted lives, just as the Forms on which their respective 
 perfections are based do not mix or combine. 
 
@@ -6093,7 +5285,7 @@ Solon, however, does not understand the appellation
 
 
 
-“children, " and inquires what the priest means when he says 
+"children, " and inquires what the priest means when he says 
 that he, Solon, an old man, is a "child." The priest 
 explains that there are periodic catastrophes due to temporary deviations of the celestial bodies from their regular 
 orbits, and that, at these times, the deviations bring 
@@ -6125,7 +5317,7 @@ the era just before the last catastrophe, and that present
 
 
 
-‘Athenians are descended from their seed. (24) 
+'Athenians are descended from their seed. (24) 
 
 The priest describes the Egyptian caste system of 
 priests, craftemen, and soldiers, in which system each 
@@ -6133,7 +5325,7 @@ class performs one and only one function, and he adds that
 these contemporary Egyptian institutions are continuous 
 with those olden days when the goddess instructed both 
 Athens and Egypt in these ways. Furthermore, the laws of 
-Egypt are said to reflect the “order of the world, deriving 
+Egypt are said to reflect the "order of the world, deriving 
 from those divine things the discovery of all arts applied 
 to human affairs..." (24b). As we shall see, this is almost 
 how Timaeus will describe the origin of all human arts. 
@@ -6159,7 +5351,7 @@ pp. 244 ff.
 
 
 
-‘Atlantic, perhaps from America. © 
+'Atlantic, perhaps from America. © 
 
 It 4s interesting to forecast the almost exact 
 thematic parallel of the tale of the Egyptian priest and 
@@ -6203,7 +5395,7 @@ material for the discourse of Timaeus. Critias himself says
 
 
 
-‘he has only approached the main points when he says: 
+'he has only approached the main points when he says: 
 
 
 We will transfer the state you (Socrates) described 
@@ -6251,7 +5443,7 @@ Critias will start from the origin of man and carry the
 
 
 
-‘account to the birth of Athens. In this way, the actual 
+'account to the birth of Athens. In this way, the actual 
 origins of society will be discovered. Interestingly, 
 no mention is made of the proposed content of the 
 Hermocrates. Once before, Plato hinted at a projected 
@@ -6288,7 +5480,7 @@ University).
 
 
 
-‘Statesman, etc. Such a linearization of Plato's philosophy 
+'Statesman, etc. Such a linearization of Plato's philosophy 
 
 
 leaves everything behind in which case we should read only 
@@ -6305,7 +5497,7 @@ understand Timaeus' thoughts on the proposed theme (27c).
 
 The first distinction to be made is that between 
 
-what is always re&l and has no becoming and what 
+what is always re\&l and has no becoming and what 
 
 it is which is always becoming and is never real. 
 
@@ -6377,7 +5569,7 @@ it does so, it may properly be called good. This is
 especially true in the Philebus, where the cause of the 
 mixture of elements is responsible for the quality of the 
 mixture (27a). Here, Timaeus says that if the maker is to 
-use & generated model (a copy of the original) he will be 
+use \& generated model (a copy of the original) he will be 
 copying a copy, whereas he should copy the original, and 
 by preserving its proportion, imitate genuinely. 
 
@@ -6388,11 +5580,11 @@ was in fact said in other words. But now this doctrine must
 be generalized and tested on a cosmological scale. Therefore, 
 
 
--Timaeus uses the phrase, “concerning the whole ‘heaven’ or 
+-Timaeus uses the phrase, "concerning the whole 'heaven’ or 
 
 
 
-‘world’ (not heaven and world)..." (27b), parenthetically 
+'world’ (not heaven and world)..." (27b), parenthetically 
 adding that the name can be chosen to suit heaven itself. It 
 
 
@@ -6429,10 +5621,10 @@ next line where we read "But again that which becomes, we
 Say, must necessarily become by the agency of some 
 cause" (28c). 
 
-Next comes the often quoted statement “The maker and 
+Next comes the often quoted statement "The maker and 
 
 
-‘father of this universe it is a hard task to find, and 
+'father of this universe it is a hard task to find, and 
 
 
 
@@ -6469,7 +5661,7 @@ aid several times that these myths are for children, but,
 
 
 
-‘evidently, he has underestimated his own age. This relates 
+'evidently, he has underestimated his own age. This relates 
 directly to the whole purpose of the dialogue, which is 
 to replace what Plato regards as dangerous fantasies about 
 the ultimate origins of the universe, with a more rational 
@@ -6505,7 +5697,7 @@ spoken without blasphemy..." (29).
 
 Plato is caught between two extreme difficulties: on 
 the one hand the childish myths must be corrected, but 
-‘this might be regarded by the people as blasphemy; on the 
+'this might be regarded by the people as blasphemy; on the 
 other hand, the people to whom Plato wishes to speak the 
 correction cannot understand the deeper truths behind the 
 myths, so that he has to put them in examples which are not 
@@ -6557,7 +5749,7 @@ preparation for Plato's statement that the world is the
 best of things that have become, unless it is Plato's 
 knowledge that he is going to describe the world as the 
 result of the best of causes, and therefore knows it must 
-be the best of “effects.” But this creates the very 
+be the best of "effects." But this creates the very 
 difficulty which this dialogue is trying to avoid, and 
 that is the description of the best cause as one whose 
 action can only bring about the best results. For, in one 
@@ -6749,8 +5941,8 @@ change. There are many more senses in which the word
 Parmenides (151e-152e). For example, one may say "is 
 
 
-becoming,” “was becoming,” “becoming older," "becoming 
-younger," “will be becoming," etc. On the basis of his 
+becoming," "was becoming," "becoming older," "becoming 
+younger," "will be becoming," etc. On the basis of his 
 simple division into two meanings, Cornford adopts the 
 conclusion that the second meaning cannot be what Plato 
 means and that therefore the world must have begun in time. 
@@ -6764,7 +5956,7 @@ similarly divided the kinds of production in two (265b)
 
 
 
-‘whereas it is clear that there are several kinds of 
+'whereas it is clear that there are several kinds of 
 production stated theres human and divine, fantasy ad 
 image, proportional and non-proportional. This is especially 
 important, because the Sophist divides genuine production 
@@ -6857,7 +6049,7 @@ necessitate the mythical figure or that it might be true to
 say that the maker is ineffably inscrutable and should not 
 be spoken for fear of blasphemy, both of which interpretations seem more plausible in the light of the doctrinal 
 development of the late dialogues. Thus Cornford says that 
-a similar “device” was employed in the Republic, referring 
+a similar "device" was employed in the Republic, referring 
 probably to the Myth of Er. But in the late dialorues, 
 Plato repeatedly criticises these myths as childish. Yet 
 Cornford's interpretation of myth is responsible for his 
@@ -6991,9 +6183,9 @@ in time, and to reach his true meaning we must
 
 strip off the veil of allegory.1!5 
 Here 4s the source of Cornford's statement that it is 
-impossible to "strip off the veil of allegory.“ Later in 
+impossible to "strip off the veil of allegory." Later in 
 his commentary, Archer-Hind writes that although Plato is 
-talking about “absolute thought thinking itself" Plato 
+talking about "absolute thought thinking itself" Plato 
 has put this idea into the figure of a gradually unfolding 
 process. My view is that it is not necessary to strip off 
 the veil of allegory to see Plato's meaning, for the 
@@ -7004,8 +6196,8 @@ of the truth. But for those who see the doctrine, the image
 but actually helps it to radiate of itself, and to shine 
 more radiantly. However, one notices that Archer-Hind does 
 not translate the final portion of the passage in question 
-by the phrase “only an image"; he says, simply, that an 
-image is "likely" and "duly corresponding” with its 
+by the phrase "only an image"; he says, simply, that an 
+image is "likely" and "duly corresponding" with its 
 subject. Thus Archer-Hind 1s able to conclude that words 
 stand in the same relation to the Forms, which they represent as the images do, and that this proportion is a 
 special case of the more general formula at the end of the 
@@ -7076,9 +6268,9 @@ But a point worth making is partially confirmed by
 Jowett, in that he agrees with Archer-Hind that Plato 
 makes words proportional to their referents, just as 
 images are proportional to their paradigms. Although 
-Cornford's translation of “accounts” is somewhat cumbersome, Jowett, however, agrees with Cornford in translating 
+Cornford's translation of "accounts" is somewhat cumbersome, Jowett, however, agrees with Cornford in translating 
 the second half of the proportion "what essence is to 
-generation, so truth is to belief,” although Cornford 
+generation, so truth is to belief," although Cornford 
 prefers being to essence. 
 
 The little=-consulted work of T.T. Taylor is also 
@@ -7099,7 +6291,7 @@ between the world of exemplars and the world of images,
 and this in turn would lead to the diminution of the role 
 of images and the arguments based upon them. And so, T.T. 
 Taylor says that in the discussion of images, "we should 
-employ only probable arguments,” thereby separating what 
+employ only probable arguments," thereby separating what 
 Plato is trying to put together in a new way. However, T.T. 
 Taylor says, 
 The faith which Plato now assumes appears to be 
@@ -7148,9 +6340,9 @@ must in no wise fall short thereof, whereas the
 accounts of that which is copied after the likeness 
 of that model, and is itself a likeness, will be 
 analogous thereto and posess likelihood; 
-Although Bury does not insert an “only" in this passage, 
+Although Bury does not insert an "only" in this passage, 
 the feeling tone is indicated in his tra*slation by his 
-use of “whereas,” which makes it seem that he has shifted 
+use of "whereas," which makes it seem that he has shifted 
 the field and is now speaking of the opposite side of the 
 dichotomy. His translation makes it seem that the universe 
 4s only a copy of a copy, and therefore probably lese than 
@@ -7185,7 +6377,7 @@ applying to it the fundamentals of Whitehead's theory of
 
 
 
-time, as set out in the “Concept of Nature.” There are 
+time, as set out in the "Concept of Nature." There are 
 here actually two "heresies," as Cornford says. The first 
 ig the assertion that Plato's theory of creation is 
 assimilable to the Christian notion: the second 1s that 
@@ -7197,7 +6389,7 @@ Taylor first determines that Plato has said that
 the world clearly must have had an eternal model but that 
 the world itself is mutable. Then he says, "This is 
 virtually what Whitehead means when he says in his own 
-terminology that objects are ‘angredient'"!9 in events. 
+terminology that objects are 'angredient'"!9 in events. 
 From this he draws the inference that Plato insists on a 
 provisional character of representation because the senses 
 only perceive roughly, and because it takes a long time for 
@@ -7206,7 +6398,7 @@ and finally arrive at precise and exact perceptions.
 Cornford seems right here when he says that A.E. Taylor's 
 speculations derive from A.E. Taylor and hardly at all 
 from Plato. It might be true to assert that Plato held 
-the senses not to be “infinitely acute" but this is a 
+the senses not to be "infinitely acute" but this is a 
 long way from the claim that Plato offers a provisional 
 
 
@@ -7222,7 +6414,7 @@ account because the senses are so dull and because they
 can only report what they perceive at a given time, °° 
 
 
-AE, Taylor nevertheless does not insert the “only” which 
+AE, Taylor nevertheless does not insert the "only" which 
 others want. His translation reads: 
 
 We must lay it down that discourses are akin in 
@@ -7241,7 +6433,7 @@ fallingshort of thate-), discourses about that
 which is itself a likeness likely and corresponding to their objects.2! 
 
 However, he adds the comment that Timaeus' discourse 
-and Timaeus' “warning” about proportionality pertain to 
+and Timaeus' "warning" about proportionality pertain to 
 the whole cosmology. 
 
 It is not given as a finally true account of 
@@ -7253,7 +6445,7 @@ so far as Timaeus can see, best "saves," i.e.,
 does full justice to all the "appearances" so far 
 
 as they are known to him.22 
-So, although A.E. Taylor does not insert “only” in his 
+So, although A.E. Taylor does not insert "only" in his 
 translation, he asks that the passage be interpreted as a 
 warning that the account is simply the best one which 
 Timaeus can devise to save the appearances. This follows 
@@ -7266,7 +6458,7 @@ which we should expect to find "nothing more" than the
 doctrine of a fifth-century Pythagorean, a "provisional 
 
 
-tale," the “best approximation" Timaeus could manage. This 
+tale," the "best approximation" Timaeus could manage. This 
 
 
 20 tpi. 
@@ -7304,7 +6496,7 @@ could have wasted his time on so frivolous and
 futile an exercise in pastiche.@ 
 
 
-In addition, Cornford feels that “There is more of Plato 
+In addition, Cornford feels that "There is more of Plato 
 in The Adventures of Ideas than there is of Whitehead in 
 
 
@@ -7436,7 +6628,7 @@ faith. :
 
 Thus, when Timaeus tells Socrates that the participants of the dialogue should accept the account he is 
 about to give as a "probable myth" (eikota mython) (29d) 
-4t need not be understood as “only” a myth but, in 
+4t need not be understood as "only" a myth but, in 
 contradistinction to the childish myths which are for those 
 who can see no further, the myth which Timaeus is about 
 to tell is a likely or probable myth. This follows out the 
@@ -7564,7 +6756,7 @@ become and continue. These questions must now be confronted,
 for the general issue which underlies them is "what is the 
 relation of a becoming image to reality." 
 
-Cornford states that “Plato denied reality to what is 
+Cornford states that "Plato denied reality to what is 
 commonly called matter."! The materiality of this universe, 
 however, is not unconnected with the motive for the generation of the Universe by its maker. We shall investigate the 
 two issues simultaneously. Timaeus informs us of this motive 
@@ -7717,7 +6909,7 @@ model, but he is not described as looking to himself. It
 is hard to see the grounds for Taylor's assertion that the 
 demiurge fashions by "an overflow of his goodness. "4 
 
-Plato himself "recapitulates” the third man argument 
+Plato himself "recapitulates" the third man argument 
 
 
 of the Parmenides to the effect that the model which 
@@ -7766,7 +6958,7 @@ the Philebus to heart and proceeds to reveal how the
 Universe is composed of four primary elements, first the 
 traditional fire and earth, and then the third which 
 unites them, "for two cannot be satisfactorily united 
-without a third” (31b). 
+without a third" (31b). 
 
 Here Taliaferro'’s brilliant analysis of Plato's 
 Pythagoreanism is apropos. He shows how the necessity of 
@@ -7806,7 +6998,7 @@ spelled out, for the Universe shares in the intelligibility
 of 4ts model, which comprehends all the things within it 
 in a single unity. It 1s as if Plato were building suspense 
 into his drama of creation. There is a difference between 
-@& metaphysical dramatist, who writes drama with metaphysical 
+@\& metaphysical dramatist, who writes drama with metaphysical 
 overtones and suggestions, and the dramatic metaphysician, 
 who writes metaphysics with dramatic overtones. Plato seems 
 
@@ -7833,7 +7025,7 @@ fire and earth in the best way possible, which is in the
 manner of a geometric proportion (31c). This is the best 
 because "in that way all will necessarily come to play 
 the same part toward one another, and by so doing they 
-will all make a unity” (32a). Plato speaks here of the 
+will all make a unity" (32a). Plato speaks here of the 
 relation of proportional elements to each other; 2 is to 
 4 as 4 is to 8. By transposition, 4 is to 2 as 8 is to 4, 
 and in this way the mean, 4, comes to be the outside term 
@@ -7852,8 +7044,8 @@ earth need to be united in a proportion so that they
 define each other in the unity which they form. But on the 
 basis of a simple proportion of this type, the Universe 
 would have a plane surface with no depth. Yet we see that 
-the World is a solid, “and solids are always conjoined, 
-not by one mean, but by two” (32b). Therefore the god set 
+the World is a solid, "and solids are always conjoined, 
+not by one mean, but by two" (32b). Therefore the god set 
 water and air between fire and earth, and made then 
 proportional to one another. In this way the unity of the 
 Universe was achieved, and the proportionality of its 
@@ -7972,7 +7164,7 @@ Thus Plato states that the spherical body of the
 Universe is without organs or limbs, because the Universe 
 which embraces all living things within itself ought to 
 have that shape which comprehends all shapes within itself. 
-The sphere is the most perfect shape because it “comprehends 
+The sphere is the most perfect shape because it "comprehends 
 in itself all the figures there are" (33b). The shape of the 
 Universe is proportional to its model: as the model is the 
 
@@ -8063,7 +7255,7 @@ outside of itself, must in some way be related to a soul.
 
 
 The Soul of the Universe was set in the center, but 
-further "wrapped ita body round with soul on the outside” 
+further "wrapped ita body round with soul on the outside" 
 (340). Here the transposability of the elements of a proportion comes into the account. For, at first, it seems 
 that the center of the Universe cannot at the same time be 
 the periphery. But, just as the mean term of a proportion 
@@ -8087,7 +7279,7 @@ should not suppose, merely because the Soul came later in
 the account of the Universe, that it is therefore younger, 
 for that would be an insufferable perversion of right 
 order. Already, "There is in us too much of the casual and 
-the random which shows itself in our speech...” (34c). The 
+the random which shows itself in our speech..." (34c). The 
 priority of Soul in perfection is not absolute and total; 
 
 
@@ -8121,7 +7313,7 @@ is only an apparent reversal of the order in which the
 Universe was fashioned. It does not seem wise to interpret 
 this, (as Cornford and A.E. Taylor do) as "inconsistent." 
 If one understands from the outset that the best description 
-of the Universe must be proportional “te its reality, then 
+of the Universe must be proportional "te its reality, then 
 the details of the allegorical level of explanation are not 
 inconsistent with the details of the reality of the 
 
@@ -8553,7 +7745,7 @@ that there is a kind of knowledge proper to the World-Soul
 which transcends a knowledge of number, by including it in 
 
 
-&@ more comprehensive knowledge. 
+\&@ more comprehensive knowledge. 
 
 
 'T Dodds, op. cit. 
@@ -8571,7 +7763,7 @@ intelligible and eternal" (37a). Because the Soul has been
 blended out of the Same, the Different, and the Existent, 
 she is "in contact with anything that has dispersed existence or with anything whose existence is indivisible" (37a) 
 In this way the Soul is like anything that is, and it can 
-therefore know anything that is, “either in the sphere of 
+therefore know anything that is, "either in the sphere of 
 things that become or with regard to things that are always 
 changeless" (37b). 
 
@@ -8581,7 +7773,7 @@ Plato can still say that there are two "levels" of existence,
 one eternal and one becoming. But he no longer says that 
 there are only two forms of existence, nor that these two 
 "levels" or spheres are exhaustive of all existence. Since 
-the Soul is intermediate, it is a third “level” of existence. 
+the Soul is intermediate, it is a third "level" of existence. 
 Yet, one courts danger by the simple enumeration of the 
 number of forms of existence for one misses the whole 
 emphasis which Plato has put on proportionality throughout 
@@ -8658,7 +7850,7 @@ called an aesthesis, which, unlike the English word
 
 
 "judgment," extends to feeling and to the appreciation of 
-beauty as well as of truth. This capacity to Know aesthetic‘ally is of the utmost significance in Plato's Universe, and 
+beauty as well as of truth. This capacity to Know aesthetic'ally is of the utmost significance in Plato's Universe, and 
 it is especially necessary for a consideration of the next 
 topic to which Plato addresses himself, namely, time. For 
 
@@ -8785,7 +7977,7 @@ which Augustine and many other philosophers felt when
 confronting this passage, we ought not to conclude that 
 
 
-Plato has “anticipated,” as the saying goes, the doctrines 
+Plato has "anticipated," as the saying goes, the doctrines 
 
 
 
@@ -8850,7 +8042,7 @@ For, Plato will put forward in the next few passages, a
 doctrine of time as a special sort of image, and, in 
 order to avoid calling both the Universe and time by the 
 same name, Plato has elevated the Universe to the status of 
-& shrine-image so that he can refer to time as another 
+\& shrine-image so that he can refer to time as another 
 
 
 sort of image. Recall that the beginning of the Timaeus 
@@ -9118,7 +8310,7 @@ moving image.
 
 
 The second aspect of the moving image is the everlasting character of its motion. Again, we have been furnished with the material to construct an understanding of 
-this characteristic. ‘e have already called attention to 
+this characteristic. 'e have already called attention to 
 Plato's optimism in his use of the word "ceaseless," by 
 which he seems to indicate that the Universe must resemble 
 eternity by being indestructible. This feature of the 
@@ -9293,17 +8485,17 @@ spoken of the Unity of Time. He says that there were no
 days and nights, or months and years, before the Universe 
 came to be, and that all of these came into being simultaneously. However, he says 
 
-All these are parts of Time, and ‘was' and ‘shall be' 
+All these are parts of Time, and 'was' and 'shall be' 
 are forms of Time that have come to be; we are wrong 
 to transfer them unthinkingly to eternal being. We 
 say that it was and is and shall be but '1is' alone 
 really belongs to it and describes it truly; 'was' 
-and ‘shall be’ are properly used of becoming which 
+and 'shall be’ are properly used of becoming which 
 proceeds in Time, for they are motions (37e). 
 
 There is much that is important in this passage, but 
 the central point which concerns our exposition of Time is 
-the phrase “becoming which proceeds in Time.” By this small 
+the phrase "becoming which proceeds in Time." By this small 
 phrase, Plato indicates that there is a distinction to be 
 made between becoming and Time, and that these two worda 
 do not indicate the same reality. It is important to notice 
@@ -9320,7 +8512,7 @@ _@ simple juxtaposition, for there are clearly three of
 
 
 é 
-“ 
+" 
 
 
 
@@ -9373,7 +8565,7 @@ capable is the perfection which Time brings as the
 
 
 principle of order. We are now informed that becoming 
-proceeds in Time. Thus it is inexact to say “...that what 
+proceeds in Time. Thus it is inexact to say "...that what 
 is past is past, what happens now is happening, and again 
 what will happen is what will happen, and that the non-existent is the non-existent" (38b). Plato has affirmed 
 that the ordering of the Universe has been made even more 
@@ -9429,7 +8621,7 @@ with respect to each other. One could say that Time is the
 consummation of the contact which becoming and being have 
 with each other. One could speak in Hegelian language and 
 say that Time is the Mediation of Becoming, by which 
-becoming “becomes"being. But out of profound admiration for 
+becoming "becomes"being. But out of profound admiration for 
 Plato's greatness as a stylist, Plato's imagery should be 
 retained. But the truth must be understood as well as seen. 
 "Time, the moving image of eternity," is spoken in the 
@@ -9605,7 +8797,7 @@ ancient Athens; both of these accounts are to be given so
 that Socrates may fulfill his wish to hear an account of a 
 real city, not an imaginary one; not a tale of "some noble 
 creatures in a painting, or perhaps of real animals, alive 
-but motionless" but an account of real creatures, “in 
+but motionless" but an account of real creatures, "in 
 motion, and actively exercising the powers promised by their 
 form" (19c). In this way, Plato gently suggests that the 
 power to describe the actual origins of the best society 
@@ -9652,7 +8844,7 @@ But if we take separate conclusions, on which the scholars
 agree, and, if we attempt to see them in relation to each 
 other, we shall arrive at a simple and yet, to the best of 
 my knowledge, an uncommon conclusion. If (1) 1t is true 
-that the Republic is a dialogue in which Plato has attempted to see the powers of the soul "writ large,” that is, 
+that the Republic is a dialogue in which Plato has attempted to see the powers of the soul "writ large," that is, 
 
 if the Republic is a dialogue in which the state is seen 
 
@@ -9714,14 +8906,14 @@ view. But Bury nevertheless concludes that there has been
 
 no growth of Plato's doctrine, and that the conclusions of 
 the Timgeus are implicit in the views stated in the Republic, 
-This seems to stretch the meaning of the term “implicit” 
+This seems to stretch the meaning of the term "implicit" 
 beyond reasonable bounds, for, on this basis, we should 
 have to conclude that Plato's movement from an eternal 
 basis to a temporal basis is no development, but merely an 
 explication of former views. It is difficult to see how one 
 can say that the basis of society in one dialogue is 
 eternity and the basis of society in another dialogue is 
-Time, and that the one view is “4mplicit" in the other. 
+Time, and that the one view is "4mplicit" in the other. 
 
 Similarly, it 1s hard to see the grounds for A.E. 
 
@@ -9791,7 +8983,7 @@ pantry for the broom only because there is a light in the
 pantry, when, in fact, the broom is in a darker but more 
 
 
-‘spacious room in the attic. 
+'spacious room in the attic. 
 
 
 
@@ -9808,7 +9000,7 @@ writers who wish to discuss Plato's philosophy of society
 as a philosophy of history or as a political philosophy 
 seem more drawn to the Republic, and few of them go to 
 the Timaeus as the source of Plato's teaching on this 
-subject.” 
+subject." 
 
 This is not to complain that scholarly inattention 
 
@@ -10047,7 +9239,7 @@ once possible to say that Plato viewed the eternal as the
 only source of perfection and viewed the temporal realm 
 of becoming as the source of imperfection, it now emerges 
 that Plato has made a sharp distinction between incessant 
-becoming, which is indeed less than perfect, and ‘time, 
+becoming, which is indeed less than perfect, and 'time, 
 which brings perfection even to becoming. When becoming 
 1s ordered by Time it is no longer merely incessant, nor 
 only a ceaseless and perpetual fluxion of chaotic changes, 
@@ -10155,7 +9347,7 @@ Timaeus describes which cannot be ignored, and, while
 it is true to say that our modern notion of process is 
 
 
-‘richer by far and more concrete than ever a Greek could 
+'richer by far and more concrete than ever a Greek could 
 
 
 
@@ -10235,7 +9427,7 @@ tion is achievable.
 
 In this way, one can see that the Platonic Universe 
 is neither simply open nor simply closed, and that he who 
-uses the paradigm “open or closed" really uses a spatial 
+uses the paradigm "open or closed" really uses a spatial 
 idea, not a temporal one, and is therefore guilty of a 
 species of philosophical reductionism. The question is not 
 whether the Universe is closed or open but whether there is 
@@ -10272,7 +9464,7 @@ insofar as they attain perfection to the extent that it is
 possible to attain it at the time. In this way, another of 
 the frequently asserted opinions about the world of the 
 Greeks is found wanting. In conversation with philosophers, 
-‘one frequently hears that there were no genuine individuals 
+'one frequently hears that there were no genuine individuals 
 in the Greek world, since genuine individuality would 
 scandalize the Greek notion of an ordered and predictable 
 world. We must clarify the statement that there is individuality in the Greek world; a more accurate statement would 
@@ -10382,7 +9574,7 @@ is again true in the Theatetus wherein Socrates is now
 
 the old and wise man, as opposed to the young and malleable Theatetus. In view of the fact that the Timaeus casts 
 the whole middle doctrine of individual reminiscence into 
-& more generalized sociological frame of reference, it 
+\& more generalized sociological frame of reference, it 
 should be pointed out that Plato has not abandoned his 
 reminiscence theory in the later dialogues: actually, he 
 has fortified it by showing that there is a cosmological 
@@ -10524,10 +9716,10 @@ Barker, E. Political Thought of Plato and iecarotie:
 New York: Dover frublications, Inc., 1959. 
 
 Burnet, John. Greek Philosophy. rart I. London: 
-Macmilian & Co., Ltd., i914. 
+Macmilian \& Co., Ltd., i914. 
 
 
-Bury, R.G. "Plato and History,” Classical Quarterly, New 
+Bury, R.G. "Plato and History," Classical Quarterly, New 
 Series, 1-2, pp. 86-94. 
 
 
@@ -10541,7 +9733,7 @@ Claghorn, George 8S. Aristotle's Criticism of Plato's
 'Timaeus'. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1954. 
 
 Cornford, F.M. From Religion to Philosophy. New York: 
-Harper & Brothers, 1957. 
+Harper \& Brothers, 1957. 
 
 __.____ Plato's Cosmology. London: Routledge « 
 Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1937. 
@@ -10552,7 +9744,7 @@ Beacon Press, 1957.
 
 
 Field, G.C. Plato and His Contemporaries: A Study in 
-Fourth-Century Life and Thougnt. London: Methuen & 
+Fourth-Century Life and Thougnt. London: Methuen \& 
 UO., td., 1930. 
 
 
@@ -10560,7 +9752,7 @@ rrutiger, P. Les Myths de Platon. Paris: 1930.
 Gauss, Hermann. Philosophischer Handkommentar zu den 
 Dialogen Platos. 5 tir. part 2. bern: Herbart 
 ng, 1961. 
-Gioscia, V.J. "A Perspective for Role Theory,” The 
+Gioscia, V.J. "A Perspective for Role Theory," The 
 American Catholic Sociological Review. XXII, No. 2, 
 Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1961, pp. 143 ff. 
 
@@ -10576,12 +9768,12 @@ University ess, 1952.
 
 
 Heisenberg, Werner. Physics and Philosophy. New York: 
-Harper & Brothers, 1955. 
+Harper \& Brothers, 1955. 
 
-Hempel, Carl G. “Fundamentals of Concept Formation in 
+Hempel, Carl G. "Fundamentals of Concept Formation in 
 Empirical Science," International Encyclopaedia of 
 Unified Science, vols. 1 and 11; Foundations of 
-The Unit f ‘Science, vol. II, No. 7. University 
+The Unit f 'Science, vol. II, No. 7. University 
 
 
 of Chicago Press, 1952. 
@@ -10592,11 +9784,11 @@ New York: Oxford University Press, 1943.
 
 
 Jowett, B. The Dialogues of Plato. 3rd ed.; New York: 
-Scribner, Armstrong, & Co., 1878. 
+Scribner, Armstrong, \& Co., 1878. 
 
 
 Koyre, Alexandre. Krom the Closed world to the Infinite 
-Universe. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958. 
+Universe. New York: Harper \& Brothers, 1958. 
 
 
 Lauer, Q., S.J. The Being of Non-sHeing in Plato's 
@@ -10615,13 +9807,13 @@ International Philosophical Quarterly, II, No. 3,
 (September, 1962). 
 
 Meyerhoff, Hans (ed.) The Philosophy of History in Our 
-Time. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1959. 
+Time. New York: Doubleday \& Co., 1959. 
 
 Nettleship, #.L. Lectures on the Republic of Plato. 
 New York: Macmillan, 1955. 
 
 Popper, K.R. The Open Society and its Enemies. 2 vols., 
-ed ed. rev., London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1952. 
+ed ed. rev., London: Routledge \& Kegan Paul, 1952. 
 
 Ritter, Constantin. Untersuchungen uber Platon. 
 Stuttgart: 1888. 
@@ -10631,7 +9823,7 @@ Stuttgart: 1888.
 
 
 . The Essence of Plato's Philosophy. trans. 
-Adam es. London: George en & Unwin, Ltd., 1933. 
+Adam es. London: George en \& Unwin, Ltd., 1933. 
 
 
 Koss, W.D. Plato's Theory of Ideas. Oxford: Clarendon 
@@ -10639,17 +9831,17 @@ Press, 1951.
 
 
 Russell, Bertrand. Mysticism and Logic. Garden City, 
-New York: Doubleday & Co., 1917. 
+New York: Doubleday \& Co., 1917. 
 
 
-Taylor, A.&. Commentary on Plato's Timaeus. Oxford: 
+Taylor, A.\&. Commentary on Plato's Timaeus. Oxford: 
 Clarendon Press, 192%. 
 
 
 - "Plato," Encyclopaedia britannica. XVIII. 
 Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc., 1957. 
 
-- Plato: ‘the Man and His Work. 6th ed. 5th 
+- Plato: 'the Man and His Work. 6th ed. 5th 
 print. New York: Meridian books, Inc., 1959. 
 
 
@@ -10657,8 +9849,8 @@ Taylor, 1t.T. The fimaeus and Critias of Plato.
 Washington: Pantheon Books inc., 1952. 
 
 
-Walsh, W.H. “Plato and the Philosophy of History: 
-History and ‘theory in the Kepublic," History and 
+Walsh, W.H. "Plato and the Philosophy of History: 
+History and 'theory in the Kepublic," History and 
 Theory, II, No. 1 (1962), pp. 1-16. 
 
 
@@ -10708,7 +9900,7 @@ doctrine than the Republic and that in the Timaeus we
 
 
 rind a reflective advance over the doctrines ot the 
-“early” and "middle" dialogues of Plato. 
+"early" and "middle" dialogues of Plato. 
 The study traces the evolution of the three themes 
 of eternity, image, and time anda shows that Plato discussed